This has been viewed as problematic by Hermeking Empirical referents related to consumer behavior were used by Jacobs and Worthley , who believe the CAD scales compliant, aggressive, and detached behavior , which have been used in marketing, are applicable to CCM to help understand a target market. Other empirical referents found in the CCM literature relate to retail settings and marketing negotiations.
For example, Tsalikis and Nwachukwu thought that the use of an instrument developed by Reidenback and Robin to determine relativism, egoism, justice, utilitarianism, and deontologicalism using seven-point semantic differential scales would be useful in evaluating cross-cultural differences in retail settings. A number of measures were used by Graham in his investigation of cross- Downloaded by [Oregon State University] at 21 May cultural marketing negotiations. In his study comparing Japanese and American negotiators, Graham used a negotiation game developed by Kelley , in which profits are determined and used as an indicator of successful negotiation.
Profit as an empirical referent has been used by several researchers Graham, Negotiator satisfaction was also used to determine negotiation success and was measured via a post-exercise questionnaire developed by Graham.
A number of empirical referents have been used in CCM, and we have discussed those found in the CCM literature that we reviewed. While some of the empirical referents have been utilized more often than others, more work is needed in identifying both empirical referents related to culture and its various aspects and empirical referents related to marketing strategies relevant to CCM.
Conclusion Because cross-cultural marketing has many attributes and is a multidimensional concept, its understanding and its consistent use at present appears limited. Our review of the CCM literature found the term used frequently without an explicit explanation or definition, although we did find some shared attributes.
Multicultural marketing marketing aimed at cultural variation within one nation was a related concept. In a concept analysis the focus is on understanding one concept. We found that the term CCM is often used synonymously with other terms, such as foreign marketing, international marketing, and so forth.
Some might also argue that multicultural and global marketing are also synonymous with CCM. Sometimes, as a result of concept analysis, it is possible to define the term under analysis using the defining attributes. While we found attributes, only a few were used by over half of the scholars whose work we analyzed. This is a very broad and unclear definition. In other words, researchers need to be clear in defining culture, marketing strategies, and marketing research and identifying the specific dimensions variable of each aspect of CCM which they hope to measure.
Fashion manufacturers who want to expand into different cultural markets could employ local design and advertising teams who better understand the design preferences, aesthetic tastes, communication styles, and consumer behaviors of the local market. Manufacturers and retailers who do not have the financial capital to develop and implement local design teams may find it useful to contract this service to local firms.
Global fashion firms use a variety of strategies to be successful in the international marketplace. Many use technology to help tailor merchandise assortments to the local markets e.
It cannot be overstated that through increased knowledge of consumers and their culture, a firm can develop customer relationship management programs Zhou et al. It takes time and great attention to detail to develop CCM strategies Graham, , p. It also requires a greater amount of training of managers and technicians Graham, , p.
Scholars in the area of fashion marketing who are interested in CCM research need to be clear about the aspect s of culture they hope to explore. Also, researchers need to be clear about how they are operationally defining culture; that is, is the researcher assuming that a national culture exists and can be studied, or are they exploring sub- cultural consumer behaviors, which may be more appropriate in developing and tailoring merchandise assortments, advertising and business strategies?
In the past, much of the existing CCM literature has focused on western nations e. Notes 1. Because we are analyzing one specific concept, we made this limitation. It should be noted, however, that scholars often use several terms seemingly as synonyms. These terms include foreign marketing, international marketing, multicultural marketing, and multinational marketing.
We read three articles from Journal of Business Research; it should be noted that all three articles were related. Engelen and Brettel b then followed up with a response. Religion can be either a socio-cultural value or a societal institution.
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Marketing Across CulturesJean-Claude UsunierUnderstanding what is country-specific and what is universal is essential for the design of marketing strategies that can be successfully implemented across national markets. Marketing Across Cultures explores the theoretical and practical implications of thinking local but acting global. Unlike many texts, it emphasizes people, languages and cultures, and recognizes the diversity in local consumer knowledge and marketing practices.
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The book is invaluable for senior undergraduate students who have studied a marketing management course and Postgraduate students MBA in particular for an international marketing course. For those who wish to improve their cultural awareness, this is essential reading.
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